Either way, you would experience dissonance. 3). This is known as the principle of cognitive consistency. Introduced by Leon Festinger in 1957 in his book, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, the Cognitive Dissonance theory focuses on how we as human beings always strive hard to make sure that our beliefs and actions are aligned with each other. California: Stanford University Press. A theory of cognitive dissonance. This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access. Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance has been widely recognized for its important and influential concepts in areas of motivation and social psychology. We will look at the main findings to have emerged from each area. Many people seem able to cope with considerable dissonance and not experience the tensions the theory predicts. Abstract. One thing they can do is to change the behavior. Dr. Leon Festinger's theory shows us the precursor to Justification of Effort. Both alternatives have their good points and bad points. The cognitive dissonance experiment was designed by Leon Festinger and his colleague Merrill Carlsmith in 1957, was conducted with students and included the following steps: Cognitive dissonance occurred among students who agreed to lie for a dollar and had to convince themselves that this experience was fun to mitigate the conflict. A theory of cognitive dissonance. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. A woman, “Mrs. Because these participants did not make a decision, they did not have any dissonance to reduce. Dr. Leon Festinger's theory shows us the precursor to Justification of Effort. La théorie de la dissonance cognitive (1957) est lune des théories les plus connues de la psychologie sociale, et Festinger, son auteur, pourrait être considéré, selon Zajonc (1990), comme le Picasso de la discipline 1. What is Cognitive Dissonance? Festinger, L. (1957). This is referred to as "spreading apart the alternatives.". Is it a perception (as 'cognitive' suggests), or a feeling, or a feeling about a perception? There has been a great deal of research into cognitive dissonance, providing some interesting and sometimes unexpected findings. web browser that Fue autor de A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance [1] (Teoría de la disonancia cognitiva, [2] 1957), obra en la que expone su teoría de la disonancia cognitiva, que revolucionó el campo de la psicología social, y que ha tenido múltiples aplicaciones en áreas tales como la motivación, la dinámica de grupos, el estudio del cambio de actitudes y la toma de decisiones. He hoped to exhibit cognitive dissonance in an experiment which was cleverly disguised as a performance experiment.Initially, subjects will be told that they will be participating in a two-hour experiment. She attracted a group of followers who left jobs, schools, and spouses and who gave away money and possessions to … Tell him you disagree and he turns away. var pfHeaderImgUrl = 'https://www.simplypsychology.org/Simply-Psychology-Logo(2).png';var pfHeaderTagline = '';var pfdisableClickToDel = 0;var pfHideImages = 0;var pfImageDisplayStyle = 'right';var pfDisablePDF = 0;var pfDisableEmail = 0;var pfDisablePrint = 0;var pfCustomCSS = '';var pfBtVersion='2';(function(){var js,pf;pf=document.createElement('script');pf.type='text/javascript';pf.src='//cdn.printfriendly.com/printfriendly.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(pf)})(); This workis licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 Unported License. A woman, “Mrs. The Advances of cognitive dissonance article states, “However, Festinger (1957) proposes that dissonance arises after a choice has been made. Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Festinger's theory said that when a person holds contradictory elements in cognition (producing an unpleasant state called dissonance) the person will work to bring the elements back into agreement or congruence. Analyzing patients in the limits of one theory may be a hindrance to the patient’s development. Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. Jessica Hunt Com 387 Professor Sargent 12 May 2020 Cognitive Dissonance Theory Introduction The theory I have chosen for my final paper is Cognitive Dissonance theory. and you may need to create a new Wiley Online Library account. Abstract. In other words, they were more likely than participants in the other two conditions to increase the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and to decrease the attractiveness of the unchosen alternative. Leon Festinger developed the cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) Dissonance occurs when a person perceives a logical inconsistency in their beliefs, when one idea implies the opposite of another. Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance has been widely recognized for its important and influential concepts in areas of motivation and social psychology. California: Stanford University Press. Februar 1989 ebenda) war ein US-amerikanischer Sozialpsychologe, der hauptsächlich durch seine Theorie der kognitiven Dissonanz, die Theorie des sozialen Vergleichs und seine Experimente bekannt wurde.. Leon Festinger wurde als Sohn von Alex Festinger und Sara Solomon, russisch-jüdischen Einwanderern, in New York geboren. Leon Festinger (1957) [1954]. Psychologist Leon Festinger first described the theory of cognitive dissonance in 1957. Cognitive dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition which leads to activity oriented toward dissonance reduction just as hunger leads to activity oriented toward hunger reduction. Please check your email for instructions on resetting your password. Ways to Transform Cognitive Dissonance. Postdecision changes in the desirability of alternatives. En su teoría, señala que en la mente de los sujetos se … Kognitionen sind mentale Ereignisse, die mit einer Bewertung verbunden sind. If you do not receive an email within 10 minutes, your email address may not be registered, Brehm (1956) was the first to investigate the relationship between dissonance and decision-making. When someone is forced to do (publicly) something they (privately) really don't want to do, dissonance is created between their cognition (I didn't want to do this) and their behavior (I did it). In all conditions, they then heard a very boring discussion about sex in lower animals. Leon Festinger. As presented by Festinger in 1957, dissonance theory began by postulating that pairs of cognitions (elements of knowledge) can be relevant or irrelevant to one another. Participants in the high-dissonance condition chose between a highly desirable product and one rated just 1 point lower on the 8-point scale. AUTHORS: Ali Sarkohi, Karin Forslund Frykedal, Hazel Holmberg Forsyth, Staffan Larsson, Gerhard Andersson Kognitive Elemente können in relevanter Beziehung zueinander stehen oder irrelevant füreinander sein. For example, in a two-storey apartment … This method of reducing dissonance is known as 'effort justification.'. In 1957, Leon Festinger published a theory of cognitive dissonance, which has cold war international history project. In general, social psychologists, always looking for the next great theory, seemed to have shelved this book and its concepts within a couple of decades after it came out in 1957 (see Leon Festinger's comments 30 years later in Appendix B of "Cognitive Dissonance Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology" edited by Eddie Harmon-Jones and Judson Mills). In the control condition, they went straight into the main study. In general, social psychologists, always looking for the next great theory, seemed to have shelved this book and its concepts within a couple of decades after it came out in 1957 (see Leon Festinger's comments 30 years later in Appendix B of "Cognitive Dissonance Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology" edited by Eddie Harmon-Jones and Judson Mills). Stanford University Press. Stanford University Press. Festinger, ein Schüler und Mitarbeiter Kurt Lewins, veröffentlichte 1957 sein Buch ‚A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance‘. It is especially relevant to decision-making and problem-solving. This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance. Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance has been widely recognized for its important and influential concepts in areas of motivation and social psychology. INTRODUCTION. If two cognitions are relevant to one another, they are either consonant or dissonant. In this way, he would be decreasing the importance of the dissonant cognition (smoking is bad for one's health). (Ed.). Erstmals befasste sich eine Theorie der wissenschaftlichen Psychologie mit der Dynamik der menschlichen Psyche. Browse other articles of this reference work: The full text of this article hosted at iucr.org is unavailable due to technical difficulties. Participants in the control group were simply given one of the products. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59(2), 177. Cognitive Dissonance Theory. If we put effort into a task which we have chosen to carry out, and the task turns out badly, we Inconsistent cognitions produce unpleasant states that motivate individuals to change one or more cognitions to restore consistency with other cognitions (i.e., consonance). Dr, Philip Zimbardo walks us though a lesson in Cognitive Dissonance. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. After reading the reports about the various products, individuals rated the products again. Festingers Theorie. This is known as the principle of cognitive consistency. Keech,” reported receiving messages from extraterrestrial aliens that the world would end in a great flood on a specific date. Inconsistency among beliefs or behaviors will cause an uncomfortable psychological tension. A common way to reduce dissonance is to increase the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and to decrease the attractiveness of the rejected alternative. Festinger, L. (1957). This is probably because dissonance would be caused if we spent a great effort to achieve something and then evaluated it negatively. var idcomments_post_id; Cognitive dissonance was one of many theories based on the principle of cognitive consistency that grew from early theories such as balance theory (Heider, 1946, 1958). Some attitudinal consequences of forced decisions. Festinger veröffentlichte seine Theorie 1957 in seinem Buch A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (deutscher Titel: „Theorie der kognitiven Dissonanz“, s. u. Literatur). Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) posits that individuals seek to maintain consistency among multiple cognitions (e.g., thoughts, behaviors, attitudes, values, or beliefs). Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the confederate that the boring experiment would be fun. The theory is based on the fact that human beings are aware of their actions and that whenever we do something we don’t agree with, we must relieve the generated dissonance. family and friends. The women then rated the desirability of eight household products that ranged in price from $15 to $30. Inconsistent or conflicting beliefs lead to disharmony, which people strive to avoid. However, this mode of dissonance reduction frequently presents problems for people, as it is often difficult for people to change well-learned behavioral responses (e.g., giving up smoking). For example, thinking smoking causes lung cancer will cause dissonance if a person smokes. In the work I have been doing recently, I have had a bit of cognitive dissonance arise. Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Some attitudinal consequences of forced decisions. the complete works of friedrich nietzsche. They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a waiting participant (a confederate) that the tasks were really interesting. The extent to which we experience depends on the individual. His theory of cognitive dissonance is especially relevant to social psychology, especially in the areas of motivation and group dynamics. anthropology of policy. The theory of dissonance is here applied to the problem of why partial reward, delay of reward , and effort expenditure during training result in increased resistance to extinction. McLeod, S. A. The theory of dissonance is here applied to the problem of why partial reward, delay of reward , and effort expenditure during training result in increased resistance to extinction. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52(3), 384. In his 1957 book, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Festinger explained, "Cognitive dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition which leads to activity oriented toward dissonance reduction ju… So today, I wanted to share some information on what it is. Cognitive dissonance. Show him facts or figures and he questions your sources. Evanston, IL Row, Peterson. Cognitive dissonance theory links actions and attitudes. As noted earlier, this is often very difficult, so people frequently employ a variety of mental maneuvers. If you took the job you would miss your loved ones; if you turned the job down, you would pine for the beautiful streams, mountains, and valleys. A Theory of cognitive dissonance. They also found that functional distance predicted social ties as well. Kognitive Dissonanz bezeichnet in der Sozialpsychologie einen als unangenehm empfundenen Gefühlszustand. Brehm, J. W. (1956). In A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957), Leon Festinger proposed that human beings strive for internal psychological consistency to function mentally in the real world. Leon Festinger (* 8.Mai 1919 in New York City; † 11. Forced compliance occurs when an individual performs an action that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs. Leon Festinger introduced cognitive dissonance theory in a 1957 book, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Learn more. Also, the majority of experiments used students as participants, which raise issues of a biased sample. The stronger the discrepancy between thoughts, the greater the motivation to reduce it (Festinger, 1957). Le concept a été introduit par Leon Festinger en 1957. The study can also serve as a connection between the theoretical sources on cognitive dissonance and those dealing with a leader’s role in human resource management in the organization. Cognitive dissonance leads to the motivation to reduce the dissonance (Festinger, 1957). Working off-campus? The team showed that the formation of ties was predicted by propinquity, the physical proximity between where students lived, and not just by similar tastes or beliefs as conventional wisdom assumed. Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance has been widely recognized for its important and influential concepts in areas of motivation and social psychology. supports HTML5 video. Psychologist Leon Festinger first proposed a theory of cognitive dissonance centered on how people try to reach internal consistency.2 He suggested that people have an inner need to ensure that their beliefs and behaviors are consistent. Inconsistent cognitions produce unpleasant states that motivate individuals to change one or more cognitions to restore consistency with other cognitions (i.e., consonance). As you can imagine, participant's attitudes toward this task were highly negative. Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) is often considered to be one of the most influential theories in social psychology. The behavior can't be changed, since it was already in the past, so dissonance will need to be reduced by re-evaluating their attitude to what they have done. Although the original conception of cognitive dissonance theory was intended to apply to a broad range of psychological phenomena, subsequent research tended to focus on attitudes and behavior. The Cognitive Dissonance Experiment is based on the theory of cognitive dissonance proposed by Leon Festinger in the year 1957: People hold many different cognitions about their world, e.g. Leon Festinger developed the cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) Dissonance occurs when a person perceives a logical inconsistency in their beliefs, when one idea implies the opposite of another. INTRODUCTION. ISBN 0-8047-0911-4 レオン・フェスティンガー『認知的不協和の理論 社会心理学序説』末永俊郎 監訳、誠信書房、1965年9月。 ISBN 4-414-30210-2。 Leon Festinger; Henry Riecken; Stanley Schachter (2009). Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson. Eine Person, die unter innerer Inkonsistenz leidet, neigt dazu, sich psychisch unwohl zu fühlen und ist motiviert, die kognitive Dissonanz zu verringern. Participants in the high-dissonance condition spread apart the alternatives significantly more than did the participants in the other two conditions. Appeal to logic and he fails to see your point. A person could convince themself that it is better to "live for today" than to "save for tomorrow.". Dr, Philip Zimbardo walks us though a lesson in Cognitive Dissonance. https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html. The magnitude of dissonance is directly proportional to the number of discrepant cognitions and inversely proportional to the number of consonant cognitions that a person has. Consequently, the term cognitive dissonance is somewhat subjective. culture and economic life. cultural memory in the present about their environment and their personalities. This theory was developed by Leon Festinger in 1957 (Cooper, 2019). Like most change, awareness is the first step. The discomfort is triggered by the person's belief clashing with new information perceived, wherein they try t… Simply Psychology. In 1951, Leon Festinger was asked to develop a “propositional inventory” of the area of “communication and social influence.” The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance is what resulted from his research (Festinger, 1957). ISBN 0-8047-0911-4 レオン・フェスティンガー『認知的不協和の理論 社会心理学序説』末永俊郎 監訳、誠信書房、1965年9月。 ISBN 4-414-30210-2。 Leon Festinger; Henry Riecken; Stanley Schachter (2009). One of the things to remember is most people (unless they are enlightened) experience cognitive dissonance (so be kind to yourself). When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance. This theory represents the objective communication perspective. Der Sozialpsychologe Leon Festinger (1919-1989) revolutionierte in den 1950er Jahren mit seiner Theorie der Kognitiven Dissonanz die Psychologie. Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance has been widely recognized for its important and influential concepts in areas of motivation and social psychology. The theory of dissonance is here applied to the problem of why partial reward, delay of reward , and effort expenditure during training result in increased resistance to extinction. In 1957, in his book A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Leon Festinger proposed the idea that people need to maintain a high level of consistency between our thoughts and real-world facts in order to function properly in our day-to-day lives. This is an account of Festinger’s initial experiment, together with a link to the website The website includes some of the data before analysis, which I did not copy. However, there is a problem from a scientific point of view, because we cannot physically observe cognitive dissonance, and therefore we cannot objectively measure it (re: behaviorism). Fue autor de A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance [1] (Teoría de la disonancia cognitiva, [2] 1957), obra en la que expone su teoría de la disonancia cognitiva, que revolucionó el campo de la psicología social, y que ha tenido múltiples aplicaciones en áreas tales como la motivación, la dinámica de grupos, el estudio del cambio de actitudes y la toma de decisiones. Leon Festinger (1957) [1954]. 3 Reviews. experience dissonance. scale. Participants will be briefed that the experiment aims to observe the relationship between expectations and the actual experience of a task. G. Johnstone Spring 2002. Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and behavior in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). However, new information such as “research has not proved definitely that smoking causes lung cancer” may reduce the dissonance. While at the University of Minnesota, Festinger read about a cult that believed that the end of the world was at hand. Learn about our remote access options. Dissonance can be reduced in one of three ways: a) changing existing beliefs, b) adding new beliefs, or c) reducing the importance of the beliefs. In other words, he could tell himself that a short life filled with smoking and sensual pleasures is better than a long life devoid of such joys. They were asked to rate how interesting they had found the discussion, and how interesting they had found the people involved in it. Cognitive dissonance was first investigated by Leon Festinger, arising out of a participant observation study of a cult which believed that the earth was going to be destroyed by a flood, and what happened to its members — particularly the really committed ones who had given up their homes and jobs to work for the cult — when the flood did not happen. Festinger, L. (1959). People have several ways to reduce dissonance that is aroused by making a decision (Festinger, 1964). Festinger was an American social psychologist who was born in New York in 1919. Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) posits that individuals seek to maintain consistency among multiple cognitions (e.g., thoughts, behaviors, attitudes, values, or beliefs). In this chapter, the main results of a structuralist analysis of Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance and of a typical dissonance experiment are presented and some methodological problems are discusssed from a structuralist point of view. The magnitude of the post decision dissonance depends on the importance of the decision, relative attractiveness of the unchosen alternative and the degree of cognitive overlap of the alternatives” (“The Advances”, 2011). The Study Cognitive dissonance is a phenomenon studied by Leon Festinger most famously in his 1954 study involving 71 male students from Stanford University. Cognitive Dissonance. There are also individual differences in whether or not people act as this theory predicts. Leon Festinger (1957) proposed cognitive dissonance theory, which states that a powerful motive to maintain cognitive consistency can give rise to irrational and sometimes maladaptive behavior. The theory of cognitive dissonance has been widely researched in a number of situations to develop the basic idea in more detail, and various factors that have been identified which may be important in attitude change. Keech,” reported receiving messages from extraterrestrial aliens that the world would end in a great flood on a specific date. Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) is often considered to be one of the most influential theories in social psychology. Enter your email address below and we will send you your username, If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username, I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of Use,  10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosc058.pub2, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosc058.pub2. Die deutschsprachige Übersetzung erschien 1978. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Après plus de 50 ans dexistence, la théorie continue de générer des recherches innovantes. In the 'severe embarrassment' condition, they had to read aloud obscene words and a very explicit sexual passage. Two cognitions are consonant if one follows from the It holds that dissonance is experienced whenever one cognition that a person holds follows from the opposite of at least one other cognition that the person holds. A theory of cognitive dissonance. (2018, Febuary 05). A person who experiences internal inconsistency tends to become psychologically uncomfortable and is motivated to reduce the cognitive dissonance. Zwischen diesen Kognitionen können Konflikte (Dissonanzen) entstehen. Cognitive Dissonance Theory Definition. function Gsitesearch(curobj){ curobj.q.value="site:"+domainroot+" "+curobj.qfront.value }. Deception is the cornerstone of the experiment conceived by Leon Festinger in the year 1959. In fact, though, it seems we find it easier to persuade ourselves that what we have achieved is worthwhile and that's what most of us do, evaluating highly something whose achievement has cost us dear - whether other people think it's much cop or not! Leon Festinger - Leon Festinger - Cognitive dissonance: While at the University of Minnesota, Festinger read about a cult that believed that the end of the world was at hand. In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance occurs when a person holds contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values, and is typically experienced as psychological stresswhen they participate in an action that goes against one or more of them. According to the theory, inconsistency between attitude and behavior produces an unpleasant emotional state called ‘cognitive dissonance,’ and people try to reduce this undesired state by changing their attitudes. Festinger's Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Annahme: Personen streben ein Gleichgewicht ihres kognitiven Systems an. To reduce this dissonance, we are motivated to try to think that the task turned out well. In case they don’t, it makes us uncomfortable and we try to find reasons that will explain the conflict between the two. Notice that dissonance theory does not state that these modes of dissonance reduction will actually work, only that individuals who are in a state of cognitive dissonance will take steps to reduce the extent of their dissonance. Wikipedia goes a little deeper: "In A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957), Leon Festinger proposed that human beings strive for internal psychological consistency to … Elle a été élaborée aux États-Unis par Léon Festinger (1919-1989), professeur en psychologie sociale à lUniversité Stanford (Palo Alto, Californie). Introduced by Leon Festinger in 1957—and since that time debated, refined, and debated again by psychologists—cognitive dissonance is defined as the aversive state of arousal that occurs when a person holds two or … We could, of course, spend years of effort into achieving something which turns out to be a load of rubbish and then, in order to avoid the dissonance that produces, try to convince ourselves that we didn't really spend years of effort, or that the effort was really quite enjoyable, or that it wasn't really a lot of effort. Acta Psychologica, 15, 389-390. Individuals in the low-dissonance group chose between a desirable product and one rated 3 points lower on an 8-point Cognitive Dissonance: Festinger’s Theory. Sozialpsychologie: Die Theorie der kognitiven Dissonanz (Festinger, 1957) - 1. Wikipedia goes a little deeper: "In A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957), Leon Festinger proposed that human beings strive for internal psychological consistency to … (1964). Life is filled with decisions, and decisions (as a general rule) arouse dissonance. It holds that dissonance is experienced whenever one cognition that a person holds follows from the opposite of at least one other cognition that the person holds. Cognitive dissonance theory links actions and attitudes. Festinger, L. (1959). Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (dissonance). According to the theory, inconsistency between attitude and behavior produces an unpleasant emotional state called ‘cognitive dissonance,’ and people try to reduce this undesired state by changing their attitudes. //Enter domain of site to search. var idcomments_post_url; //GOOGLE SEARCH Biografía. In A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957) schlug Leon Festinger vor, dass Menschen nach innerer psychologischer Konsistenz streben, um in der realen Welt mental zu funktionieren . Cognitive Dissonance Theory. It also seems to be the case that we value most highly those goals or items which have required considerable effort to achieve. While fringe members were more inclined to recognize that they had made fools of themselves and to "put it down to experience," committed members were more likely to re-interpret the evidence to show that they were right all along (the earth was not destroyed because of the faithfulness of the cult members). It has the advantage of being testable by scientific means (i.e., experiments). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. Could we generalize the results from such experiments? There are four strategies used to do reduce the discomfort of cognitive dissonance: We change our behavior so that it is consistent with the other thought. The theory of dissonance is here applied to the problem of why partial reward, delay of reward , and effort expenditure during training result in increased resistance to extinction. Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and behavior in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). When one of the dissonant elements is a behavior, the individual can change or eliminate the behavior. Festinger’s Theory of Cognitive Dissonance appears as a means to concentrate on the conflict itself, when it is actual, rather than only on the personality, or personalities, within an individual. Psychologist Leon Festinger was the person who discovered cognitive dissonance. Use the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Finally, many of the studies supporting the theory of cognitive dissonance have low ecological validity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. The theory of dissonance is here applied to the problem of why partial reward, delay of reward , and effort expenditure during training result in increased resistance to extinction. To view this video please enable JavaScript, and consider upgrading to a Stanford University Press, 1957 - Psychology - 291 pages. Aronson, E., & Mills, J. Highly anxious people are more likely to do so. The products included an automatic coffee maker, an electric sandwich grill, an automatic toaster, and a portable radio.
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